Fast, bedside diagnosis of toxic epidermal necrolysis using ex vivo confocal laser scanning microscopy: A retrospective study.

BACKGROUND: Toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) is a severe life-threatening drug eruption with rapid evolution. A fast histologic differentiation between TEN and clinically similarly looking staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome is of vital importance for relevant treatment decision. The recently developed ex vivo confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) offers innovative and extremely fast histological visualization of fresh tissue specimens. OBJECTIVE: To assess the diagnostic efficacy of ex vivo CLSM in comparison with standard histopathology for TEN. METHODS: We performed side-by-side comparison of TEN specimens analysed with ex vivo CLSM and haematoxylin and eosin staining. Analysis focused on typical histopathological features of TEN, including epidermal cleavage in the basal layer and confluent epidermal necrosis. We retrospectively assessed the diagnostic performance of ex vivo CLSM for TEN in clinically confirmed cases. RESULTS: We report substantial agreement between ex vivo CLSM and classical histology for the detection of subepidermal cleavage and confluent epidermal necrosis. When considering full-thickness epidermal loss, epidermal cleavage in the basal layer showed the highest diagnostic performance, reaching 87.5% sensitivity and 100% specificity. CONCLUSION: Based on our data, ex vivo CSLM appears as a rapid, resource-optimizing, and reliable approach for morphological TEN emergency screening on fresh skin samples.

Desmoplakin I/II immunohistochemical staining may be a helpful tool in differentiating cutaneous graft versus host disease from the erythema multiforme, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, and toxic epidermal necrolysis spectrum disorders.

Cutaneous graft versus host disease (cGVHD) has substantial clinical and histopathologic overlap with erythema multiforme (EM), Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS), and toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN). This overlap can make it difficult to distinguish these disorders in patients who have received hematopoietic transplants. We sought to evaluate the utility of Dp I/II immunohistochemical stain in differentiating EM/SJS/TEN and cGVHD in a large cohort. Skin biopsy specimens from patients with cGVHD (n = 58) and EM/SJS/TEN (n = 60) were evaluated for Dp I/II expression by immunohistochemistry. We found a statistically significant difference in Dp I/II staining between cGVHD (all grades) and EM/SJS/TEN (mean scores 1.62 and 2.14, respectively; p < 0.005), as well as between Grades 2 + 3 cGVHD and EM/SJS/TEN (mean scores 2.26 and 1.62, respectively; p < 0.005), while we did not find a significant difference between Grade 4 cGVHD and EM/SJS/TEN (mean scores 1.69 and 1.62, respectively; p = 0.71). Dp I/II immunostain may be useful for differentiating EM/SJS/TEN from Grade 2 and Grade 3 cGVHD, especially in clinically ambiguous cases without extracutaneous GVHD.

A case of eruptive lichen spinulosus after toxic epidermal necrolysis.

We report a case of a 13-year-old boy who presented with eruptive monomorphic white papules on the trunk and arms involving regions previously affected by toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN). Biopsy revealed compact keratin involving the hair follicle and sparse mixed perivascular infiltrate, findings consistent with lichen spinulosus. Improvement was noted after treatment with ammonium lactate 12% lotion. While cutaneous dyschromia and xerosis are common after TEN, lichen spinulosus has not yet been described in the literature. It is important for providers to be aware of any potential cutaneous sequelae of TEN that can affect quality of life in order to best counsel their patients.

Advances in Our Understanding of the Interaction of Drugs with T-cells: Implications for the Discovery of Biomarkers in Severe Cutaneous Drug Reactions.

Drugs can activate different cells of the immune system and initiate an immune response that can lead to life-threatening diseases collectively known as severe cutaneous adverse reactions (SCARs). Antibiotics, anticonvulsants, and antiretrovirals are involved in the development of SCARs by the activation of αß naïve T-cells. However, other subsets of lymphocytes known as nonconventional T-cells with a limited T-cell receptor repertoire and innate and adaptative functions also recognize drugs and drug-like molecules, but their role in the pathogenesis of SCARs has only just begun to be explored. Despite 30 years of advances in our understanding of the mechanisms in which drugs interact with T-cells and the pathways for tissue injury seen during T-cell activation, at present, the development of useful clinical biomarkers for SCARs or predictive preclinical in vitro assays that could identify immunogenic moieties during drug discovery is an unmet goal. Therefore, the present review focuses on (i) advances in the understanding of the pathogenesis of SCARs reactions, (ii) a description of the interaction of drugs with conventional and nonconventional T-cells, and (iii) the current state of soluble blood circulating biomarker candidates for SCARs.

Epidermal necrolysis in the context of immuno-oncologic medication as well as kinase inhibitors and biologics.

BACKGROUND: Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis are severe, primarily drug-induced reactions of skin and mucosa. Since they differ in the extent of skin detachment but not in etiology, they are grouped together as epidermal necrolysis (EN). Due to nationwide registration, representative data are available at the German Center for the Documentation of Severe Skin Reactions (dZh). Here, an increasing number of case notifications in the context with new immuno-oncologic drugs, kinase inhibitors and biologics have been observed. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Of 4,150 cases notifications between January 2003 and February 2019, 102 cases with exposure to these drug groups underwent systematic analysis, validation and causality assessment. RESULTS: Two cases of EN to vemurafenib were confirmed and one case to afatinib and pembrolizumab, respectively. In 14 EN cases other drugs - predominantly allopurinol or cotrimoxazole - were the causative agent. Fourteen cases were EN-like reactions: six bullous lichenoid drug eruptions (DE) to pembrolizumab (2), obinutuzumab, nivolumab, rituximab, infliximab/nivolumab, and eight multiforme-like DE to rituximab (2), adalimumab, ramucirumab, bevacizumab, vemurafenib, sorafenib (2). Lichenoid DE were differentiated from EN through histopathology and by the protracted course of EN, multiforme-like DE by variable skin manifestations with only sparse epidermolysis or mucosal involvement. CONCLUSIONS: A correct diagnosis is highly relevant in terms of prognosis and use of these drugs in malignoma treatment. Re-exposure is contraindicated in EN, but possible in other DE after rigorous risk-benefit evaluation.

Cutaneous Immune-Related Adverse Events Secondary to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors and Their Management.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (CPIs) are highly effective in the treatment of various cancers. Immunotherapy enhances antitumor activity by relieving inhibition of T cells responsible for immune surveillance. However, overactivation of T cells leads to immune-related adverse events (irAE), of which cutaneous adverse events are the most common. Examples include pruritus and maculopapular eruption most commonly, psoriasis and bullous dermatoses less commonly, and, rarely, severe, life-threatening eruptions such as Stevens-Johnson Syndrome or Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis. Many of these are autoimmune in nature, and these may present de novo or as recurrence of pre-existing disease. In order to maximize the therapeutic potential of CPIs, it is essential to recognize and effectively manage cutaneous irAE, which can otherwise lead to treatment interruption or discontinuation. This review summarizes the presentation and management of dermatologic adverse events secondary to immune dysregulation as a result of immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy, including the most common (maculopapular eruption, pruritus, lichenoid dermatitis, and vitiligo), less common (psoriasis, bullous pemphigoid, erythema multiforme, eczematous dermatitis, alopecia areata, and granulo-matous and neutrophilic dermatoses), and severe (acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis [AGEP], drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms [DRESS], and Stevens-Johnson syndrome or toxic epidermal necrolysis [SJS/TEN]), as well as exacerbation of pre-existing cutaneous autoimmune disease (subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus, dermatomyositis, eosinophilic fasciitis, leukocytoclastic vasculitis, and scleroderma-like reaction).

Toxic epidermal necrolysis with systemic lupus erythematosus: case report and review of the literature.

Toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) and Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS) are potentially fatal mucocutaneous diseases characterized by extensive necrosis and exfoliation of the epidermis. TEN and SJS are most often caused by various kinds of drugs. Other risk factors for SJS/TEN include pneumonia infection, HIV infection, genetic factors, underlying immune diseases, and tumors. SJS and TEN were first identified in 1922, but at present, a widely recognized view is that SJS and TEN represent phases in the continuous progress of the same disease. SJS/TEN has a very high mortality, but is rare, and cases of SJS/TEN combined with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) are even less common. Occasionally, acute cutaneous manifestations of SLE and SJS/TEN can be phenotypically similar, both causing extensive epidermal necrosis. In this paper, we present a recent case of a 32-year-old female SLE patient with a drug-induced (the health product, astaxanthin) TEN/SJS. To provide context to this case, we have reviewed relevant case studies published in English, accessed via PubMed databases. The search covers all published case studies from 1988 to 2019. We collected a total of 30 cases in the literature, and analyzed their characteristics from the aspects of gender, suspicious medication history, and treatment in order to expand clinicians' approach to diagnosis and treatment.

Sequential Blood Purification for Pediatric Fatal Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis: A Case Series.

BACKGROUND: Extracorporeal therapy that included therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE) or continuous hemofiltration (CHF) for toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) syndrome was used in small number of patients. We aimed to describe the sequential mode of combined application of CHF and TPE in 3 TEN patients with multiple organ dysfunction (MODS) in pediatric intensive care unit. METHODS: Three patients with fatal TEN received sequential CHF and TPE due to unsatisfactorily conventional treatments. CHF was initiated and performed on a daily basis with 35-50 mL/kg.h replacement fluid at the rate of 3-5 mL/kg.min blood flow. CHF was temporarily interrupted for TPE, which was performed with exchange 1-1.5-fold of one body calculated plasma volume in each section. RESULTS: All 3 fatal TEN (with >30% involvement of body surface and MODS) following unsuccessful treatment with corticosteroids and intravenous immunoglobulin. Antibiotics were suspected in the TEN-triggered drugs. The range number of TPE sessions was 3-5 and the duration of CHF was from 120 h to 202 h. After initiation of TPE and CHF, blistering with extensive epidermal necrosis halted and the skin re-epithelialized within 2 weeks. Serum C-reactive protein, procalcitonin, tumor necrosis factor-α , and interlukin-6 decreased and percentage of natural killer cells increased in surviving children. Two patients survived to discharge and one case died due to nosocomial infection with multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii. CONCLUSION: After sequential TPE and CHF, skin lesions and inflammatory response improved in TEN. Our result indicates extracorporeal therapy could be used as an alternative modality for fatal pediatric TEN.

Multi-state model for predicting ocular progression in acute Stevens-Johnson syndrome/toxic epidermal necrolysis.

This study aimed to clarify the etiologic factors predicting acute ocular progression in SJS/TEN, and identify patients who require immediate and intensive ophthalmological treatment. We previously conducted two Japanese Surveys of SJS/TEN (i.e., cases arising between 2005-2007 and between 2008-2010), and obtained the medical records, including detailed dermatological and ophthalmological findings, of 230 patients. Acute ocular severity was evaluated as none, mild, severe, and very severe. A multi-state model assuming the Markov process based on the Cox proportional hazards model was used to elucidate the specific factors affecting the acute ocular progression. Our findings revealed that of the total 230 patients, 23 (24%) of 97 cases that were mild at initial presentation worsened to severe/very severe. Acute ocular progression developed within 3 weeks from disease onset. Exposure to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and younger patient age were found to be statistically significant for the progression of ocular severity from mild to severe/very severe [hazard ratio (HR) 3.83; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.48 to 9.91] and none to severe/very severe [HR 0.98; 95% CI 0.97 to 0.99], respectively. The acute ocular severity score at worst-condition was found to be significantly correlated with ocular sequelae. Thus, our detailed findings on acute ocular progression revealed that in 24% of SJS/TEN cases with ocular involvement, ocular severity progresses even after initiating intensive treatment, and that in younger-age patients with a history of exposure to NSAIDs, very strict attention must be given to their ophthalmological appearances.

Differential expression of tear film cytokines in Stevens-Johnson syndrome patients and comparative review of literature.

To investigate the differential expression of tear cytokine levels among chronic Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS) patients to better understand the role of significantly altered cytokines in disease development. Tear samples were collected using Schirmer strips in 24 eyes of chronic SJS, 24 eyes of age and gender-matched controls, and 14 eyes of aqueous deficiency dry eye disease (DED) patients. The cytokine analysis was performed among 18 analytes which include pro-inflammatory, anti-inflammatory factors, and ELR-negative CXC chemokines. String analysis was performed for the significantly altered cytokines to understand their co-expression and role in the disease development. Additionally, a literature review was conducted to identify the signature cytokines present in chronic SJS tears. The differential expression of IL-6 (p ≤ 0.029), CXCL8/IL-8 (p ≤ 0.009), IL-1ß (p ≤ 0.041), IL-2 (p ≤ 0.025), IL-10 (p ≤ 0.053), and CXCL-10 (p ≤ 0.044) were observed in chronic SJS patients and healthy controls. Whereas, IL-6 (p ≤ 0.029), CXCL8/IL-8 (p ≤ 0.058), CCL4 (p ≤ 0.056), GM-CSF (p ≤ 0.0001) IL-10 (p ≤ 0.025), and CXCL-10 (p ≤ 0.010), were differentially expressed in SJS as compared to severe DED patients. String analysis of the significantly altered cytokines revealed the involvement of several biological processes including the chronic inflammatory response, nitric oxide synthesis, angiogenesis, and cellular response to drugs. Among all the cytokines evaluated, the expression of CXCL8/IL-8 and CXCL10 levels were consistently reported in the literature. There was a differential expression of tear cytokines in SJS when compared to DED and healthy controls. The differential expression of CXCL8/IL-8 and CXCL10 was in line with existing literature and their role in chronic SJS pathogenesis merits further evaluation.

Chemokines in Severe Cutaneous Adverse Reactions (SCARs).

Although the incidence of severe cutaneous adverse reactions (SCARs) to medications is very low, SCARs can result in disability or even death if they are not diagnosed and treated properly. As the rapid recognition of SCARs is essential, it is necessary to develop diagnostic markers for them that can also be used to assess severity and predict outcomes in the early phase. In addition, it is important to identify novel therapeutic targets for SCARs. Chemokines are chemotactic cytokines that control the migratory patterns and locations of immune cells and usually exhibit markedly specific associations with certain human diseases. In Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS)/toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN), the Th1-associated chemokines chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 9 (CXCL9) and CXCL10 predominate, while in drug-induced hypersensitivity syndrome (DIHS)/drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS), the levels of the Th2-associated chemokines chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 17 (CCL17) and CCL22 are markedly elevated. We suggest that the distinct chemokine profiles of SJS/TEN and DIHS/DRESS can be used to aid their differential diagnosis. CXCL10 has also been reported to be associated with the development of long-term sequelae in DIHS/DRESS. This review focuses on the chemokines involved in the pathogenesis and adjuvant diagnosis of SCARs, particularly SJS/TEN and DIHS/DRESS, but also provides a brief overview of SCARs and the chemokine superfamily. As it is being increasingly recognized that an association exists between human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) and DIHS/DRESS, the possible roles of the chemokine/chemokine receptor homologs encoded by HHV-6 in the pathogenesis of DIHS/DRESS are also discussed.

Recognition and Management of Severe Cutaneous Adverse Drug Reactions (Including Drug Reaction with Eosinophilia and Systemic Symptoms, Stevens-Johnson Syndrome, and Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis).

Severe cutaneous adverse reactions to medications (SCARs) include drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis, and acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis. They are all non-immunoglobulin E mediated hypersensitivity reaction patterns, distinguished from simple cutaneous drug eruptions by immunologic pathogenesis and internal organ involvement. Herein the clinical features, diagnostic workup, and management considerations are presented for each of these major SCARs.

Toxic epidermal necrolysis-like acute cutaneous lupus erythematosus: two cases report.

Toxic epidermal necrolysis-like acute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (TEN-like ACLE) is a rare manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Because of its rarity, little is known about this entity. In this report, we describe a case of two women previously diagnosed with SLE that presented TEN-like skin lesions. The common elements in both patients were the initial disposition of the lesions on the photoexposed areas, the positivity of Nikolsky´s sign, the discrete mucosal attrition compared to that observed during TEN, and the simultaneous appearance of dermatological lesions with an extra-cutaneous flare of lupus disease. The skin biopsy in both cases showed epidermal necrosis with an identification of lupus band on direct immunofluorescence. Systemic corticosteroids were used with a good evolution after 2 weeks. Skin damage is an indicator of disease activity, and careful search for extracutaneous involvement is obligatory to prevent further complications.

A Rare Laryngeal Presentation of Stevens-Johnson Syndrome.

Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS) is a rare but severe mucocutaneous epidermolysis commonly triggered by medications. SJS is characterized by mucocutaneous lesions of the trunk, face, and limbs, as well as the oral cavity, gastrointestinal tract, and respiratory tract. Although uncommon, laryngeal involvement in SJS can lead to severe respiratory, phonatory and deglutitive complications. Providers caring for patients with SJS should maintain a high index of suspicion for laryngeal involvement and low threshold to solicit Otolaryngology consultation. Laryngeal complications can be more expediently managed when anticipated early in the course of disease. Laryngoscope, 131:2519-2522, 2021.

Nivolumab-associated Stevens-Johnson syndrome in a patient with lung cancer.

Nivolumab is a fully human immunoglobulin G4 immune checkpoint inhibitor antibody approved for use in the treatment of several malignancies such as lung cancer. Cutaneous reactions to checkpoint inhibitors are frequent, appearing in approximately 40% of patients. Although most of the reactions are well tolerated, these drugs can lead to severe cutaneous adverse reactions, but a quick recognition of the symptoms can significantly decrease their mortality. In this case report, we describe a patient with metastatic squamous lung cell carcinoma suffering from nivolumab-induced Stevens-Johnson syndrome with severe skin denudation and mucosal involvement.